The Concept of Jihad in Islam

The concept of Jihad in Islam is multifaceted, encompassing a struggle for self—purification as well as a defensive measure to protect the Muslim community from oppression and aggression. During the Prophet Muhammad’s (ﷺ) early years in Makkah, the primary form of jihad was spiritual and moral resistance, enduring severe persecution with patience and fortitude. However, after the migration to Madinah, the need for defensive measures became critical due to increasing threats from the Quraysh, hypocrites, and surrounding hostile groups.

• Types of Jihad in Islam:

1. Greater Jihad: This type of Jihad is a spiritual struggle against one’s own ego and sinful tendencies to achieve self—purification for spiritual development. It is a constant struggle and effort to keep oneself free from all kinds of worldly greed, injustice and sinful acts. It emphasizes restraint and patience in every aspect. In this regard, in a hadith, the Prophet (ﷺ) said: “A mujahid is one who struggles against his own self in obedience to Allah, the Almighty.” (Tirmidhi and Ibn Majah).

1. Lesser Jihad: This type of Jihad is a defensive struggle to protect the community, its faith, and its freedom from external aggression. This is called the lesser jihad, i.e., the just resistance struggle for self—defense and liberation from the injustice, oppression and torture of the opponent, and the protection of the country and nation from the aggression of the external enemy. This jihad becomes indispensable when all efforts to establish justice and peace in society fail. This jihad is the fundamental right of every person and nation.

The Ground Reality of the Jihads Led by the Prophet Muhammad (ﷺ)

The Holy Prophet Muhammad (ﷺ) was sent to guide a nation steeped in ignorance, violence, and moral decay. His mission unfolded in an era marked by deep tribal loyalties, continuous conflicts, and social injustices. Known as the Ayyam-e-Jahiliyyah (Days of Ignorance), this period reflected a society devoid of ethical and moral principles.

• The State of Pre-Islamic Arabia: The society into which the Prophet (ﷺ) was born was one of rampant tribalism and lawlessness. Common practices included:

1. Tribal wars and feuds fueled by revenge.
2. Acts of murder, plunder, and banditry.
3. Alcoholism, gambling, and other vices.
4. The burying of infant daughters, a cruel practice born of fear and pride.

The Arabs of this time were driven by materialism and false beliefs. Despite proximity to advanced civilizations like the Roman and Persian Empires, they remained uninfluenced by their cultural or ethical advancements.

• The Prophet’s Mission: The Prophet Muhammad (ﷺ) was entrusted with the divine mission to guide this nation from ignorance to enlightenment. Before his prophethood, he was known as Al-Amin (The Trustworthy), earning respect for his honesty and integrity. After receiving revelation, he began preaching the message of Islam, which emphasized: 

1. Monotheism: The worship of one Allah alone.
2. Justice: Eliminating social injustices and establishing fairness.
3. Morality: Promoting good deeds and discouraging evil.

His call to Islam faced fierce opposition from the Quraysh of Makkah, who saw the new religion as a threat to their power and traditions. The Quraysh subjected the Prophet (ﷺ) and his followers to severe persecution, eventually forcing them to migrate to Madinah. 

Justification of Defensive Jihad

The thirteen–years Prophethood of Muhammad (ﷺ) in Makkah were marked by a spiritual and moral jihad, emphasizing inner struggle against human ego and the cultivation of virtues such as patience, restraint, and unwavering faith. Despite severe oppression and countless inhumane tortures inflicted by the Quraysh, the Prophet (ﷺ) and his followers displayed remarkable perseverance. This endurance strengthened their character and deepened their devotion to Allah (SWT).

Under the relentless persecution in Makkah, the Muslims endured immense hardship, including social boycotts, physical torture, and the loss of property and lives. Eventually, they were forced to leave their homeland, with some migrating to Abyssinia for refuge and others later joining the Prophet (ﷺ) in Madinah. Despite this relocation, the threat to their safety and religious freedom persisted. 

• Growing Threats in Madinah: The Hijrah (migration) to Madinah marked a turning point in Islamic history, as it established a nascent Islamic state. However, the Muslims soon faced a complex web of adversities. The newly established Islamic state in Madinah fell into a three–pronged threats and conspiracy:

1. External Threats: The Quraysh of Makkah, still hostile, sought to destroy the Muslim community and undermine the emerging Islamic state.
2. Internal Threats: The hypocrites (munafiqeen) in Madinah posed a significant danger by sowing discord and collaborating with the Quraysh against the Muslims.
3. Surrounding Hostilities: Certain Jewish tribes in Madinah, despite initial agreements, conspired against the Muslims, further complicating the situation.

• The Need for Self-Defense: The Prophet (ﷺ) recognized the growing need for a structured defense to safeguard the lives, property, and religious freedom of the Muslim community. In the absence of such a system, the newly formed state would remain vulnerable to conspiracies and aggression. These threats emphasized the importance of preparing for self–defense to ensure the survival and stability of the Islamic state.
• Divine Guidance and Strategy: Amid these challenges, the Prophet (ﷺ) sought divine guidance. He awaited Allah’s (SWT) instructions to address the increasing dangers. The eventual revelation permitting armed jihad was a turning point, as it provided the Muslims with a legitimate means to protect themselves against oppression and external aggression. The Prophet (ﷺ) began implementing strategic measures to strengthen the Muslim community, including the formation of alliances, the establishment of treaties, and the organization of defensive patrols.

Through these efforts, the Prophet (ﷺ) laid the foundation for an Islamic state rooted in justice, peace, and mutual cooperation, while ensuring the protection of its people from internal conspiracies and external threats.

Revelation Granting Permission for Defensive Jihad

As tensions escalated and the Muslim community faced existential threats, Allah (SWT) granted permission for armed resistance to safeguard their lives, property, and faith. The permission for jihad was revealed in the following verse:

“Permission to fight is given to those against whom the disbelievers fight, because they have been wronged. Allah is most able to help them. Those who have been expelled from their homes unjustly, only because they say, ‘Our Lord is Allah.’ And if Allah had not repelled some people by means of others, the churches, the synagogues, and the mosques, in which the name of Allah is much remembered, would certainly have been destroyed. Allah will surely help those who help Allah. Indeed, Allah is Exalted in Might and Mighty.” (Surah Al–-Hajj, 22:39–40)

This verse highlights the justifiable reasons for armed jihad: protecting religious freedom, defending against oppression, and preserving places of worship where Allah’s (SWT) name is remembered.

The Qur’anic Principles of Jihad

The Prophet (ﷺ)’s strategies were deeply rooted in the Qur’anic principles of justice and peace, as exemplified in the following verses:

1. Justice and Fairness:

“O you who believe, be steadfast in justice, witnesses for Allah, and do not turn away from justice because of enmity towards a people. Be just, that is nearer to piety. Fear Allah. Indeed, Allah is well-acquainted with what you do.” (Surah Al–Ma’idah, 5:8) 

1. Preference for Peace:

“And if they desire peace, then desire it, and put your trust in Allah. Indeed, He is the Hearing, the Knowing. But if they desire to deceive you, then Allah is sufficient for you.” (Surah Al–Anfal, 8:61–62)  

1. Ending Oppression:

“And fight them until there is no more strife and the religion of Allah is established. Then if they desist, there is no compulsion against anyone except the wrongdoers.” (Surah Al–Baqarah, 2:192–194)

1. Protection for Refuge Seekers:

“And if any of the idolaters seek refuge with you, grant him refuge so that he may hear the word of Allah, then deliver him to his place of safety. That is because they do not know.” (Surah At–Tawbah, 9:6)

1. Mutual Uprightness:

“So if they are upright toward you, be upright toward them. Indeed, Allah loves the righteous.” (Surah At–Tawbah: 9:7) 

Conditions for Jihad:

Islam prohibits all types of coercion with regard to religious matters. Islam instructs people to reach the message of religion through peaceful means and in the best language. Jihad must be carried out in a just and lawful manner, in self–defense, to protect the lives of innocent people, to prevent oppression and tyranny, and to establish social peace. So in setting the principle Jihad the Prophet of Islam (ﷺ) has justifiably considered the following conditions:

1. It must be declared by a legitimate authority, such as an Islamic state.
2. It must be the last resort after all peaceful means to resolve the conflict have been exhausted.
3. Civilians, including women, children, the elderly, and religious clergy, must not be targeted.
4. Proportionality must be observed; force used should match the level of aggression.
5. Destruction of property, crops, and places of worship is strictly prohibited. 
6. The terms of the treaty must be strictly adhered to.

• The Qur’anic verse Prohibiting Excesses in Jihad:

Armed jihad is strictly defensive, conducted to repel aggression and establish peace without exceeding limits or committing injustice. Aggression and harm to those who are not involved in combat are forbidden:

وَقَاتِلُوا فِي سَبِيلِ اللَّهِ الَّذِينَ يُقَاتِلُونَكُمْ وَلَا تَعْتَدُوا ۚ إِنَّ اللَّهَ لَا يُحِبُّ الْمُعْتَدِينَ۝

“And fight in the way of Allah against those who fight against you, but do not transgress. Indeed, Allah does not like the transgressors.” (Surah Al–Baqarah, 2:190)

• Humane Treatment of Prisoners
  Prisoners of war must be treated with dignity and kindness, reflecting the ethical principles of Islam. The Prophet (ﷺ) forbade unnecessary bloodshed and treated prisoners of war with dignity. 

The Core Characteristics of Jihad in Islam

Based on the Qur’anic principles the Prophet (ﷺ) waged Jihad with utmost caution and adherence. The core characteristics of these struggles included:

1. Restraint and Patience: Despite provocation, the Prophet (ﷺ) exercised remarkable self–control and avoided all types of excesses.
2. Justice and Mercy in Conflict: Battles were fought only to defend the faith, protect the oppressed, and uphold justice.  The Qur’an stresses the importance of justice, even in conflict.
3. Protection of Vulnerable Groups: Islam places a strong emphasis on the protection of vulnerable groups and the preservation of religious institutions, even during times of war. The Qur’an and the Sunnah of Prophet Muhammad (ﷺ) highlight the sanctity of human life and the moral conduct required in conflict.

• Children and Women:
  Islam strictly prohibits the targeting of non-combatants, including children and women, during warfare. Prophet Muhammad (ﷺ) explicitly instructed his companions not to harm women, children, and other non-combatants.

The Prophet (ﷺ) said:

“Do not kill any woman, child, or elder.” (Sunan Abi Dawood, 2614)

• Elderly:
  The elderly, being non-combatants, are also given explicit protection under Islamic teachings. The Prophet (ﷺ) emphasized mercy towards all and prohibited harm to those who are not directly involved in hostilities.

• Protection of Religious Persons and Places of Worship:
  Islamic warfare ethics demand the protection of religious figures, such as monks, priests, and others dedicated to worship, as well as their places of worship.

During one of the military campaigns, Abu Bakr (RA), the first Caliph, instructed his army:

“Do not kill women, children, the elderly, or those devoted to worship in monasteries. Do not destroy churches or synagogues.” (Muwatta Malik, Book 21, Hadith no. 10)

• Civilians and Their Property:
  The destruction of civilian property, including homes, crops, and water supplies, is strictly prohibited unless absolutely necessary for military objectives and even then, it must be minimized.

• Respect for Nature:
  The Islamic code of war includes provisions to avoid unnecessary harm to the environment, such as cutting down trees or killing animals, unless required for survival.

Unique Strategies and Treaties of the Prophet Muhammad (ﷺ)

The Prophet’s (ﷺ) Justice and Ethical Conduct in Jihad:

Jihad in Islam is deeply rooted in principles of justice, restraint, and the preservation of peace. It is not a license for aggression but a protective measure to ensure freedom of worship and safety from oppression. By adhering to ethical standards and prioritizing dialogue, Islam establishes a framework for coexistence while safeguarding the rights of the oppressed. The Prophet Muhammad’s (ﷺ) conduct during times of conflict remains a timeless example of justice, mercy, and humanity. 

• Principles of Restraint, Fairness and Humanity: The strategies and treaties employed by the Prophet Muhammad (ﷺ) were exemplary in their commitment to justice, legitimacy, and ethical conduct. Even during times of intense conflict, he adhered to principles of restraint, fairness, and humanity. 

“O you who believe, be steadfast in justice, witnesses for Allah, and do not turn away from justice because of enmity towards a people…” (Surah Al–Ma’idah, 5:8)

• Not Revenge – But Peace as a Priority: Islam emphasizes resolving disputes through dialogue and peaceful means whenever possible:

“And if they incline to peace, then incline to it [also] and rely upon Allah.” (Surah Al–Anfal, 8:61)

• Example of Forgiveness to avoid Bloodshed: His strategies remain a source of inspiration for conflict resolution and leadership in the modern world. Even in moments of war, the Prophet (ﷺ) upheld principles of justice and avoided unnecessary bloodshed. One of the most remarkable examples of his strategy was the Conquest of Makkah, a bloodless campaign. Despite years of persecution and hostility from the Quraysh, the Prophet (ﷺ) chose forgiveness and reconciliation over vengeance. He famously declared to the people of Makkah: “Go, for you are free.” His conquest of Makkah stands as a testament to his generosity and forgiveness, as he pardoned his former enemies.

This act of magnanimity stands as a unique example of forgiveness and patience in world history. 

Justice in Treaties and Agreements:

The Prophet (ﷺ)’s approach to treaties and conflict resolution was characterized by unwavering principles of justice, compassion, and forgiveness. His ability to maintain these principles in the face of adversity serves as an enduring example of moral leadership.

The Prophet (ﷺ) always prioritized justice in his treaties and agreements, even with adversaries. Notable treaties include:

• The Treaty of Hudaybiyyah:
  This treaty established a temporary peace between the Muslims and the Quraysh, allowing for the peaceful spread of Islam. 

• • Though initially perceived as unfavorable to the Muslims, it demonstrated the Prophet’s wisdom and long-term vision.

• The Charter of Madinah:
  This agreement formed the basis of governance in Madinah, ensuring peaceful coexistence among Muslims, Jews, and other tribes. It was a pioneering document that enshrined the rights and responsibilities of all communities within the Islamic state. 

By prioritizing dialogue, peaceful coexistence, and ethical conduct, Prophet (ﷺ) demonstrated that lasting peace and justice are achievable even in the most challenging circumstances. His approach serves as a timeless model of leadership, diplomacy, and moral conduct. 

Legacy of the Islamic Jihad

The Prophet Muhammad’s (ﷺ) Jihads were not campaigns of conquest or aggression but efforts to establish peace, justice, and truth. They were guided by the Qur’anic principle:

“Fight in the way of Allah against those who fight you but do not transgress. Indeed, Allah does not like transgressors.” (Surah Al–Baqarah, 2:190)

The success of his mission transformed a fragmented and violent society into a united and ethical community. His example continues to serve as an enduring guide for achieving justice and peace through wisdom, patience, and steadfastness. 

• Legacy of Generosity, Justice and Forgiveness

Islamic principles of Jihad safeguard the rights and lives of children, the elderly, religious figures, and institutions during times of war. These guidelines underscore Islam’s commitment to justice, humanity, and the preservation of life and faith, even in the context of conflict. Prophet Muhammad (ﷺ) consistently exemplified mercy during wars. At the conquest of Makkah, he famously declared a general amnesty, sparing even those who had opposed him vehemently. Similarly, his treatment of prisoners of war reflected his compassion and ethical standards. 

The Threats and Challenges in Madinah 

In Madinah, the Muslim community faced a threefold threat from:

1. The Quraysh of Makkah: Who continued hostilities and conspiracies to destroy the Islamic state.
2. The Jews of Madinah: Whose breaches of agreements and alliances with enemies of the Muslims.
3. The Hypocrites of Madinah: Who made internal sabotage and treachery.

In this delicate situation, Allah (SWT) commanded the Prophet (ﷺ) to engage in Jihad, which is not merely warfare but a comprehensive struggle against oppression, injustice, and falsehood.

Patrol Formation and the Incident of Nakhla 

After receiving divine permission for armed defense, the Prophet Muhammad (ﷺ) began organizing the Muslim community for self-protection. Among his strategic measures was the formation of patrol units to monitor enemy activities and gather intelligence. One such mission was assigned to Abdullah ibn Jahsh (RA), who was tasked with leading a small contingent to Nakhla, a strategic location near Makkah, to observe the movements of a Quraysh caravan. 

• The Incident at Nakhla: While enroute, two members of Abdullah’s patrol lost their camel and were captured by the Quraysh while searching for it. The rest of the group proceeded and arrived at Nakhla on the last day of Rajab, one of the sacred months in the Arabian calendar during which fighting and killing were strictly prohibited. 

At Nakhla, the patrol encountered a Quraysh caravan led by Amr ibn Hazrami. Concerned for their safety and the potential threat posed by the caravan, the Muslims decided to launch an attack. They defeated the caravan, killing its leader, capturing two prisoners, and seizing the goods it carried. 

• Reaction in Madinah: When Abdullah ibn Jahsh (RA) and his companions returned to Madinah with the spoils and prisoners, the Prophet (ﷺ) expressed his disapproval. He was displeased that the attack had taken place during Rajab, a sacred month when warfare was forbidden. The Prophet (ﷺ) refused to accept the spoils or the prisoners, signaling his commitment to ethical conduct even in conflict. 

• Accusations and Revelations: The Quraysh and some Jewish groups used the incident to launch a propaganda campaign against the Muslims, accusing them of violating the sanctity of the sacred month. In response to these accusations, Allah revealed the following verse, clarifying the situation and addressing the falsehoods: 

“They ask you about the sacred month, how about fighting therein? Say, fighting therein is a grave sin. But to hinder people from the path of Allah, disbelief in Him, obstructing access to the Sacred Mosque, and expelling its people from it are even greater sins in the sight of Allah. And they will not cease to fight you until they turn you back from your religion, if they are able. And whoever of you turns back from his religion and dies as a disbeliever, their deeds will be in vain in this world and the Hereafter. Those will be the companions of the Fire; they will abide therein forever.” (Surah Baqarah, 2:217) 

This revelation provided context to the incident, emphasizing that while fighting during the sacred months was a serious matter, the ongoing oppression, displacement, and attempts to prevent people from following the path of Allah were far greater transgressions. This verse clarified the greater wrongdoing of the Quraysh in oppressing Muslims, ousting them from their homeland and hindering them from worshiping Allah (SWT).

Significance of the Incident: The Incident of Nakhla highlighted the complexities faced by the Muslim community during this formative period. It underscored their struggle to balance ethical principles with the necessity of self–defense in an environment of hostility and oppression. The subsequent revelation offered a divine perspective on justice, reminding the Muslims of the importance of upholding their faith and resilience against adversaries. After the above verse was revealed, the Quraish received a fitting response to the oppression they had inflicted on the Muslims, and a sense of relief returned to the troubled Muslim community.