The Challenge from Byzantine Empire

After the conquest of Makkah, Islam rapidly spread across the Arabian Peninsula. As tribes embraced the faith in large numbers, the Prophet Muhammad (ﷺ) devoted himself to unifying these new Muslim communities. However, Islam’s rising religious and political power drew the attention and concern of neighboring empires, particularly the Christian Roman (Byzantine) Empire. Fearing the growing influence of this new force, the Romans began conspiring to suppress it. News of their military preparations near Tabuk, close to the Arab–Syrian border, soon reached the Prophet (ﷺ).

 Preparations for the Tabuk Expedition

Despite the extreme summer heat, scarcity of provisions, and the long journey ahead, the Prophet (ﷺ) displayed immense resolve and began organizing a campaign. He called upon various tribes to mobilize and urged the believers to contribute financially, no matter their means. The recent memory of the Muslim army’s courageous stand at the Battle of Mu’tah—where only 3,000 Muslims faced a Roman force of over 150,000—ignited the spirit of sacrifice and martyrdom among the believers once again.

Answering the Prophet’s (ﷺ) call, the Muslim community united in generosity. Rich and poor alike gave whatever they could. Ultimately, an army of 30,000 troops, including 10,000 cavalrymen, was raised.

Opposition of the Hypocrites

Yet not all responded positively. A group of hypocrites and weak believers tried to evade participation through false excuses and subversive activities. Some even gathered in the house of a Jew named Suwaylim to plot against the campaign. The Prophet (ﷺ) confronted this sedition firmly, and those who persisted in their treachery were excluded from the army. Allah (SWT) addressed their hypocrisy in several verses of Surah At–Tawbah:

“If they had intended to go forth, they would have prepared for it. But Allah disliked their participation, so He kept them back…” (Surah At–Tawbah, 9:46)

“Those who lagged behind rejoiced in their staying behind the Messenger of Allah, and disliked striving with their wealth and lives in the cause of Allah…” (Surah At–Tawbah, 9:81)

The hypocrites even mocked the modest contributions of the poor believers, but Allah (SWT) responded:

“Those who criticize the contributors among the believers who give charity willingly, and ridicule those who find nothing to give but their effort—Allah mocks them, and they will suffer a painful punishment.” (Surah At–Tawbah, 9:79)

March Towards Tabuk

In the ninth year after Hijrah, the Prophet (ﷺ) led the largest military expedition of his life. Before departing, he entrusted Madinah to Hazrat Ali (RA). The Muslim army advanced through difficult terrain under blistering heat of the desert until they reached Tabuk, near the Syrian frontier. Along the way, they stopped at a place called Hijr before continuing.

Romans Retreated

When they finally arrived at Tabuk, they found no trace of the Roman army. Alarmed by the Muslims’ swift mobilization and unprecedented numbers, the Romans had retreated deep into Syria. Realizing a confrontation would not be strategic, the Roman commanders advised the Roman emperor against engaging in battle.

The Prophet (ﷺ) remained in Tabuk for seventeen days Saelim without entering Syria. But, even then the Roman army did not dare to enter the battle field.

Roman Ruler of the Bordering Ela Surrendered

The Prophet (ﷺ) sent a messenger to the Roman ruler of the bordering Ela (modern-–day Aqaba), John ibn Rawa, calling for war or surrender. John appeared before him and surrendered. He presented his golden cross to the Prophet (ﷺ) and made a treaty on the condition of paying the jizyah tax. Similarly, the other two Roman rulers of the neighboring Jarbah and Adhruh concluded a treaty on the condition of paying the jizyah tax. After the Tabuk campaign, the Prophet (ﷺ) returned to Madinah with the Muslim army.

The Dumatul Jandal Campaign

On the return journey to Madinah, the Prophet (ﷺ) anticipated another potential threat from the region of Dumatul Jandal, where a Roman—aligned Christian ruler posed a risk. He dispatched Khalid ibn Walid (RA) with 500 cavalry. Before they could enter the city, they found its ruler, Uqaydir ibn Abdul Malik Alkindi, in a state of bewilderment and captured him without battle. After making a treaty with the Prophet (ﷺ), Uqaydir accepted Islam and was allowed to return.

 The Course of Events after the Tabuk Expedition

Excuses of Hypocrites

The Tabuk expedition became a clear dividing line between sincere believers and hypocrites. Upon the Prophet’s (ﷺ) return to Madinah, hypocrites tried to justify their absence with feeble excuses. The Prophet (ﷺ) left their matter to Allah (SWT):

“They will swear to you by Allah when you return to them, so that you may turn away from them. So turn away from them. Indeed, they are impure, and their refuge is Hell…” (Surah At–Tawbah, 9:95)

In contrast, the genuine believers who couldn’t participate due to genuine hardship were deeply grieved. About them, Allah (SWT) revealed:

“There is no blame upon the weak, or upon the ill, or upon those who do not find anything to spend, so long as they are sincere to Allah and His Messenger…”

“Nor is there blame upon those who came to you asking for transport, and you said, ‘I can find no means of carrying you,’ and they turned away, their eyes overflowing with tears in sorrow that they could not find something to spend.”

[Surah At–Tawbah, 9:91–92]

The expedition of Tabuk, though it ended without direct battle, had far–reaching consequences. It established the strength of the Muslim state in the face of global superpowers, exposed the inner condition of the hypocrites, and strengthened the unity of the Muslim community.

The Story of the Three Repentant Companions

Among those who remained behind during the Tabuk expedition were three companions: Ka’b ibn Malik (RA), Murarah ibn al-Rabi’ al-Amri (RA), and Hilal ibn Umayyah al-Waqifi (RA). When they realized their mistake, they came before the Prophet (ﷺ), confessed their negligence, and sincerely sought repentance and forgiveness. The Prophet (ﷺ) did not immediately issue a ruling concerning them but instead awaited divine revelation from Allah (SWT). In the meantime, he instructed the Muslims to socially boycott the three companions for fifty days. Additionally, they were to separate from their wives during the last ten days of this period. Isolated and grief–stricken, they withdrew from the community, spending their days in sincere repentance and tearful supplication. Finally, Allah (SWT) accepted their repentance and revealed the following verse:

وَعَلَى الثَّلَاثَةِ الَّذِينَ خُلِّفُوا حَتَّىٰ إِذَا ضَاقَتْ عَلَيْهِمُ الْأَرْضُ بِمَا رَحُبَتْ وَضَاقَتْ عَلَيْهِمْ أَنفُسُهُمْ وَظَنُّوا أَن لَّا مَلْجَأَ مِنَ اللَّهِ إِلَّا إِلَيْهِ ثُمَّ تَابَ عَلَيْهِمْ لِيَتُوبُوا ۚ إِنَّ اللَّهَ هُوَ التَّوَّابُ الرَّحِيمُ۝

“And [Allah also forgave] the three who were left behind [after the Tabuk expedition], until the earth—vast as it is—closed in on them, and their souls were in anguish. They knew there was no refuge except in Allah. Then He turned to them in mercy so they might repent. Indeed, Allah is the Accepter of Repentance, the Most Merciful.” (Surah At–Tawbah 9:118)

Conspiracy of the Hypocrites and the Incident of Masjid al–Dirar

Throughout Islamic history, hypocrites within the Muslim community have repeatedly conspired to sow discord among the believers. A striking example of their treachery was the plot involving a mosque built in Qoba. A group of hypocrites in Madinah, led by Abu Amir al–Rahib—a staunch enemy of Islam and the uncle of the notorious hypocrite Abdullah ibn Ubayy—constructed a mosque near Qoba under the guise of serving the Muslim community.

Abu Amir had previously fought against the Muslims in the battles of Badr and Uhud and had even conspired with the Roman emperor to attack Madinah and expel the Prophet (ﷺ) and his followers. Under the pretense of providing a convenient place for prayer, the hypocrites invited the Prophet (ﷺ) to lead prayers in their newly built mosque. The Prophet (ﷺ) deferred, saying he would visit after returning from the Tabuk campaign.

However, upon his return from Tabuk, Allah (SWT) revealed to him the true intentions behind this structure—it was not a house of worship but a hub of conspiracy and division. In response, the Prophet (ﷺ) ordered the mosque to be demolished, exposing the hypocrisy of its builders. The Qur’an later revealed the following verses regarding this incident in Surah At–Tawbah:

“As for those who built a mosque to promote disbelief, to divide the believers, and as an outpost for those who previously fought against Allah and His Messenger, they will surely swear, ‘We intended nothing but good.’ But Allah bears witness that they are certainly liars.”

“Do not ever stand in it! A mosque founded on righteousness from the first day is more worthy of your prayers. In it are men who love to purify themselves, and Allah loves those who purify themselves. Who is better: those who lay their foundation on piety and Allah’s pleasure, or those who build on the brink of a crumbling cliff that will tumble them into the Fire of Hell? And Allah does not guide the wrongdoing people.”

“The structure they built will remain a source of doubt in their hearts until their hearts are torn apart. And Allah is All–Knowing, All–Wise.”

[Surah At—Tawbah, 9:107—110]

The Prophet’s (ﷺ) Strategy to Deal with the Hypocrites

Prophet Muhammad (ﷺ) faced the hypocrites (Munafiqs) with wisdom, patience, and divine guidance as revealed in the Qur’an. The hypocrites in Medina outwardly professed Islam but secretly worked against the Muslim community. The Qur’an exposed their schemes, attitudes, and consequences of their actions, equipping the Prophet (ﷺ) to deal with them effectively.

Key Strategies of Dealing with the Hypocrites were:

1. Exposing Their Traits: The Qur’an identifies the characteristics of hypocrites, such as lying, laziness in worship, and sowing discord.
   • The Qur’anic Reference:

“When the hypocrites come to you, they say, ‘We bear witness that you are indeed the Messenger of Allah.’ Allah knows that you are His Messenger, and Allah bears witness that the hypocrites are liars.” (Surah Al–Munafiqoon, 63:1)

2. Dealing with Deception: The Prophet (ﷺ) was instructed to be cautious of their deceit and to judge them by their outward declarations, leaving their inner intentions to Allah (SWT).

The Qur’anic Reference:

“They [think to] deceive Allah and those who believe, but they deceive not except themselves and perceive [it] not.” (Surah Baqarah, 2:9)

3. Avoiding Confrontation: The Prophet (ﷺ) refrained from public confrontations to prevent internal discord and instead focused on strengthening the sincere believers.

The Qur’anic Reference:

“Indeed, those who reverted back [to disbelief] after guidance had become clear to them – Satan enticed them and prolonged hope for them.” (Surah Muhammad, 47:25)

4. Warning Against Their Influence: The Qur’an warns the believers not to be swayed by the hypocrites’ actions or words.

The Qur’anic Reference:

“If they had gone forth with you, they would not have increased you except in confusion, and they would have been active among you, seeking [to cause] dissent among you.” (Surah At–Tawbah 9:47)

5. Ultimate Accountability: The Qur’an reminds that hypocrites will face severe consequences in the Hereafter.

The Qur’anic Reference:

“Indeed, the hypocrites will be in the lowest depths of the Fire – and never will you find for them a helper.” (Surah An–Nisa 4:145)

“O Prophet! Strive hard against the Unbelievers and the Hypocrites and be firm against them. Their abode is Hell, — an evil refuge (indeed).” (Surah At–Tahrim, 66:9)

These approaches demonstrate the Prophet’s (ﷺ) reliance on divine revelation and his commitment to protecting the Muslim community while maintaining justice and integrity.

The Rapid Spread of Islam Across Arabia

After the Tabuk campaign, the influence and development of Islam throughout Arabia became irresistible, and with it the rise of Muslim power. The gradual elimination of paganism from Arabia through the spread of Islam in Taif and the destruction of the Lat idols there made the progress of Islam irresistible. The two neighboring superpowers of the time, the Christian Roman Empire and the fire–worshipping Persian Empire, considered the rise of Islam obvious. The retreat of the Roman army from the border during the Muslim campaign of Tabuk turned Islam into a formidable force.

 The People of Taif Converted to Islam

• Their Initial Denial

As the forbidden month had come to an end, the Prophet (ﷺ) lifted the siege of Taif and returned to Makkah to perform Hajj and Umrah. Therefore, the people of Taif had not yet come under the shadow of Islam. Urwa ibn Masud, one of the leaders of the Thaqif tribe of Taif, returned from Yemen and first met the Prophet (ﷺ). He converted to Islam and returned to Taif. Upon reaching there, he invited the people of his tribe to Islam. But instead of accepting Islam, they killed him.

• A 5–member Delegation from Taif met Prophet (ﷺ)

Then a five—member delegation of the leaders of the Thaqif tribe met the Prophet (ﷺ) in Madinah and presented several demands and conditions for accepting Islam. These included not destroying their idol of Lat, being exempted from prayer, drinking alcohol and continuing to commit adultery. But the Prophet (ﷺ) did not accept any of these demands.

• They Finally Accepted Islam

When the Prophet (ﷺ) explained the basic principles of Islam to them, they understood the basic truth and accepted Islam. However, they requested to exempt them from the task of destroying the idol of Lat and gave this responsibility to someone else. The Prophet (ﷺ) accepted their condition and gave this task to Hazrat Abu Sufyan (RA) and Hazrat Mughira (RA). A member of this delegation named Uthman ibn Abul Aas received the teachings of Islam and was assigned to propagate it there. In this way, Islam spread in Taif.

A Year of Delegations (‘Aam al–Wufood)

The ninth year of the Hijri. Throughout the year, Madinah was filled with delegations from different tribes all over the Arabian Peninsula. After the Thaqif tribe of Taif, the acceptance of Islam was felt among various tribes of Arabia. One delegation after another came to Madinah and met the Prophet (ﷺ) and embraced Islam. Therefore, it was the year of the arrival of representatives of all tribes, regardless of the pagans and the people of the book. It was like a mass tide of voluntary acceptance of Islam. The list of these delegations from different parts of Arabia is quite long. It has been described in detail in the book ‘Tabaqat–e–Kubra’ written by Ibn Sa’d.

• The Delegations got Warm Receptions

The Holy Prophet (ﷺ) accorded the visiting delegation due respect, provided them with adequate care and hospitality, advised them on the fundamentals of Islam, i.e. faith and action, and bid them farewell with respect, leaving their leaders in their positions. At the time of departure, he sent one of his companions with them as a religious teacher to impart religious education.

• A 60–member Delegation from the Christians of Najran

The Prophet Muhammad (ﷺ) extended an invitation to Islam to the Christian inhabitants of Najran, offering them the choice to embrace the faith or submit under the condition of paying the ‘Jizya’ tax.

In response, the Bishop of Najran dispatched a delegation of sixty Christians to Madinah, where they met the Prophet (ﷺ) at the Prophet’s Mosque. After discussions, a treaty was established, granting the people of Najran full religious freedom, protection of their property, and guaranteed rights. Several prominent figures among them, including the bishop’s brother, accepted Islam, leading to the spread of the faith in Najran.

• Islam Strengthened in Yemen

The Banu Kindah, a renowned Yemeni tribe with whom the Prophet (ﷺ) had a maternal lineage, also embraced Islam. A delegation led by Ash’ath ibn Qays met the Prophet (ﷺ), and among them was Wael ibn Hujr al–Kindi, a chieftain from Hadramaut, who converted and agreed to pay the ‘Ushr’ (harvest tax). With the subsequent conversion of the Nakha’ tribe, Islam became firmly rooted across Yemen.

To strengthen religious education, the Prophet (ﷺ) sent Hazrat Mu’awiyah (RA) with Wael and dispatched a group of Companions led by Hazrat Mu’adh ibn Jabal (RA). He instructed them to convey the message of Islam with kindness, humility, and wisdom and not to overburden the newly converts with hardship.

The Opposition of Radical Infidels and Hypocrites

Despite the growing acceptance of Islam, some staunch infidels and hypocrites persisted in their hostility. But divine retribution eliminated them.

• Among them was Amir ibn Tufail, the leader of the Banu Amir tribe, who arrived in Madinah with a delegation but arrogantly rejected Islam despite the Prophet’s (ﷺ) efforts to guide him. Divine retribution befell him, and he perished from plague.
• Another member of his delegation, Arbad ibn Qays, met a similar fate, struck by lightning on his return journey. However, the rest of their tribe eventually embraced Islam.
• Similarly, Musaylimah ibn Habib of Yamama falsely claimed prophethood and misled his followers by abolishing prayer and permitting alcohol and adultery. Though he deceived some, the majority rejected his falsehood and despised his claims.

Prohibition on Polytheists in Performing Hajj

In the ninth year of Hijri, the Prophet (ﷺ) did not perform Hajj for two reasons:

• First, he was occupied with receiving and guiding numerous delegations from across Arabia, and
• Second, he sought to avoid performing Hajj alongside polytheists, whose rituals were steeped in idolatry and superstition. These included circumambulating the Ka’ba naked, smearing its walls with animal blood, and worshipping idols. After the conquest of Makkah, purifying Hajj from such ill practices became essential.

While awaiting divine guidance, the Prophet (ﷺ) appointed Hazrat Abu Bakr (RA) to lead a 300–member Hajj delegation to Makkah. During this time, Allah (SWT) revealed Surah At–Tawbah, severing ties with polytheists and banning them from the sacred precincts after a four–month grace period (though existing treaties remained valid until their expiration). The Prophet (ﷺ) then sent Hazrat Ali (RA) to Makkah to proclaim the revelation during Hajj. Key verses included:

“A declaration of disassociation from Allah and His Messenger to the polytheists with whom you had treaties.”

“Travel freely for four months, but know that you cannot escape Allah, and He will disgrace the disbelievers.”

“And a proclamation from Allah and His Messenger to the people on the day of the Greater Pilgrimage: Allah and His Messenger are free from the polytheists. If you repent, it is better for you; but if you turn away, know that you cannot thwart Allah. And give the disbelievers tidings of a painful punishment,”

“—except those with whom you have a treaty, so long as they do not betray you nor support anyone against you. Fulfill their treaty till its term, for Allah loves the righteous.”

[Surah At—Tawbah, 9:1—4]

 Consolidation of Islamic Power

After the Tabuk Campaign (9 AH), Prophet Muhammad (ﷺ) undertook several measures to consolidate Islamic power across the Arabian Peninsula. These efforts solidified the Muslim state and unified the region under the banner of Islam.

• Key Measures:

1. Strengthening Alliances and Tribes: Delegations from many tribes came to Madinah pledging allegiance to Islam.
   • The Prophet (ﷺ) secured the loyalty of various tribes by sending envoys to spread Islam, negotiate treaties, and resolve disputes.
2. Suppressing Hypocrisy and Division:
   • The destruction of Masjid al–Dirar, a mosque built by hypocrites to sow division, symbolized the rejection of disunity and deceit. (Surah At—Tawbah, 9:107–110)
3. Administrative Reforms: Governors, judges, and collectors of Zakat were appointed to oversee newly converted regions, ensuring justice and the application of Islamic law.
4. Unified Leadership and Succession Plans: The Prophet (ﷺ) prepared the Muslim community for succession by emphasizing unity, accountability, and adherence to Qur’anic principles and Sunnah.
5. Solidification of Islamic governance in Yemen: In the 10th year of Hijri, the Prophet (ﷺ) appointed Hazrat Mu’adh ibn Jabal (RA) as the governor of Yemen. Under his leadership, Yemen saw the strengthening of Islamic governance—ensuring border security, administering justice, and spreading religious education.
6. Economic Stability: Zakat and wealth distribution were systematized to alleviate poverty and create economic parity among Muslims.
   • The collection and distribution of ‘Zakat’, ‘Ushr’, and ‘Jizya’ were meticulously managed, reinforcing the economic and social structure of the Muslim state. Allah’s command in the Qur’an served as a guiding principle:

“Those who, if We grant them authority in the land, establish prayer, give Zakat, enjoin what is right, and forbid what is wrong. And with Allah rests the outcome of all matters.” (Surah Hajj, 22:41)

7. Militarized Readiness: Despite no significant conflict in Tabuk, the campaign showcased the military strength of the Muslim state, deterring external threats such as the Byzantines.
8. Final Pilgrimage: The Farewell Pilgrimage (10 AH) gathered a large number of Muslims, solidifying a shared identity and reinforcing core Islamic principles, including unity and equality.

All these steps ensured that, by the time of the Prophet’s (ﷺ) passing, the Arabian Peninsula was politically and spiritually unified and consolidated under Islam.